Throughout Chinese history, martial arts have played a significant role, being shaped and influenced by various dynasties. From the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty to the regulations imposed by the Yuan and Qing rulers, martial arts have evolved and adapted. A crucial aspect of this historical process is the cyclical nature of dynasties, where one often positioned itself diametrically opposed to the previous one. Countless times, the past has been destroyed to build a new narrative, such as during the Han Synthesis and the Yuan and Qing periods.
Throughout this cyclical process, the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) was a deeply damaging period for martial traditions, the repercussions of which are felt to this day. During this time, Mao Zedong through the Chinese Communist Party sought to eradicate traditional and bourgeois elements from Chinese culture, since according to them, these elements restrained Chinese growth. This movement caused intense persecution of martial arts masters and practitioners, destruction of knowledge and resources, censorship and modification of martial practices, as well as a profound impact on the social perception of these practices.
Within the Cultural Revolution, one can highlight the campaign against the “Four Olds” that led to cultural devastation, transforming the link between martial arts and traditional philosophies. This text points out the approaches that each dynasty took to martial practices in their periods, including the experience of exiles such as Master I Chang Ming and their transformative encounter with Master Magliacano.
Ancient Dynasties
Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE)
After the Unification of China, Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi implemented a disarmament policy to prevent rebellions. Weapons were confiscated and melted down to build iron statues and agricultural tools.
Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 CE)
During the Han dynasty, martial arts were encouraged, especially among the military. The practice was also common among civilians, and martial schools began to form.
Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)
Martial arts flourished, with the creation of many forms and styles. The Tang government encouraged martial training to strengthen the army.
Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE)
Although martial arts were practiced, the Song government regulated the use of weapons and the practice of martial arts to prevent insurrections.
Yuan Dynasty — Mongols (1271–1368 CE)
The Mongols imposed strict restrictions on the possession of weapons by the Han Chinese to maintain control. However, the Mongols allowed their own soldiers and loyal groups to practice martial arts.
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE)
The Ming government encouraged martial arts to strengthen the army. Martial arts masters began documenting their techniques, resulting in martial arts manuals. Many of these old manuals are still studied today.
Qing Dynasty — Manchus (1644–1912 CE)
Initially, the Manchu-ruled Qing dynasty imposed restrictions on martial arts and the use of weapons by Han Chinese to prevent revolts. However, over time, these restrictions were relaxed, and martial arts returned to being widely practiced. The Qing period saw the codification and systematization of many martial arts styles.
Republic of China (1912–1949 CE)
After the fall of the Qing dynasty, there was a revival of martial arts. The Republican government encouraged the practice of martial arts as a way to strengthen the people and promote national culture.
Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
As stated at the beginning, Mao Zedong initiated the Cultural Revolution to regain his power and control after the failure of the Great Leap Forward, to purge bourgeois and revisionist elements from the Communist Party, to mobilize the youth as a base of support, to destroy traditions and institutions that he considered obstacles to revolutionary progress, with the justification that this reform would make Chinese society and economy more egalitarian and modern.
During the Cultural Revolution, Mao strategically used young people to break with old traditions and implement a new ideological order. Considered more receptive to change and less attached to the past, young people were intensely indoctrinated and mobilized as Red Guards to destroy cultural symbols, persecute intellectuals, and eliminate feudal and Confucian influences. This mobilization aimed to eradicate conservative values symbolized by ancient traditions and philosophy, to establish a modern society aligned with communist principles, resulting in the devastation of cultural heritage and deep social trauma, but also consolidating Mao’s revolutionary power.
“Break the old world and create a new world“
The “Four Olds” (四旧, “Sì Jiù”)
During the Cultural Revolution, there was a movement to eliminate what were called the Four Olds, concepts linked to the past and considered feudalist and bourgeois influences. Their eradication aimed to promote a radical transformation in Chinese society. Historical monuments, books, works of art, and traditional practices were destroyed or banned, and people were encouraged to adopt new ways of thinking and behavior in line with Maoist ideology.
The “Four Olds” are:
- **Old Ideas (旧思想, Jiù Sīxiǎng)**
- **Old Culture (旧文化, Jiù Wénhuà)**
- **Old Customs (旧风俗, Jiù Fēngsú)**
- **Old Habits (旧习惯, Jiù Xíguàn)**
The Destructive Impact of the Campaign Against the Four Olds on Martial Arts
The Cultural Revolution had a devastating impact on martial arts and cultural and social life in China. Martial arts masters were persecuted, imprisoned, and even executed, being forced to abandon their practices or teach in secret. The practice of martial arts was suppressed, schools were closed, and the transmission of these traditions decreased significantly. The burning of books and destruction of documents resulted in the irreparable loss of knowledge.
The government censored martial arts techniques, allowing only forms aligned with the new ideology and promoting a kind of modern Wushu, a stylized and propagandistic version of traditional martial arts focused only on training the forms. The campaign against the Four Olds caused a significant erosion in the traditions and philosophies associated with martial arts, weakening their link with Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.
Socially, martial arts came to be discredited as superstition or relics of a feudal past, losing their status as a noble and spiritual practice.
The Cultural Revolution and Master I Chang Ming
Masters I Chang Ming and Magliacano
As seen earlier, the Cultural Revolution brought intense persecution of martial arts practitioners, leading many to exile in places like Hong Kong, the United States, Korea, and Canada.
One of these exiles was Master I Chang Ming, who settled in Seoul, South Korea with his family. There, in addition to working as an acupuncturist, he informally taught Pa Kua to a small group. It was here that I Chang Ming met Master Magliacano.
In 1975, Master Magliacano traveled to Korea to visit his Hapkido master, train with local masters, and conduct an acupuncture course, and so through a mutual friend, he met I Chang Ming, who became his Pa Kua Master, transforming his life forever.
This trip was documented in the Argentine magazine Yudo Karate number 26 that came out in February 1976, in this magazine it is written:
“The second Dan of Hapkido Isidro R. Giordano left for Seoul Korea, according to his planned plan, his stay will be one year[…] The reason for his visit is to take an improvement course at the international association of this art (Hakpkido) and to get to know the main centers of martial arts […]“
Master Magliacano often shared that his master preferred not to talk about his life in China, as he felt deeply frustrated with the events that led to his exile. He used to say:
“I am a refugee, a persecuted, a nobody, I am the man I do not want to be.“
Master I Chang Ming, who had a Taoist background, taught Master Magliacano the importance of non-competition and the use of the eight trigrams of Pa Kua in all spheres of martial practices, therapeutics, and everyday life.
After returning to Argentina, Master Magliacano had the opportunity to receive Master I Chang Ming in his country, but then they lost contact, after all it was a time before the internet. In 1995, during a trip to the USA, Master Magliacano managed to contact one of the sons of Master I Chang Ming, who lived there, and who informed him of the death of his father.
Translated From Revolução cultural chinesa e o Pa Kua, Sérgio M. de Souza
Translated By Colin S. Peacock
Sources used in the article and suggestions:
China Transformed by Elimination of ‘Four Olds’ (Published 1971)
Cultural Revolution: Conflicts and Contradictions in Maoist China
The Routledge Handbook of Sport in Asia
Politics and Identity in Chinese Martial Arts | Lu Zhouxiang | Taylor
